How culture, geography, and social pressures shape our thinking

Humans are social animals

I am working on a short book about critical thinking, which includes understanding the limits of our knowledge and the biases that distort our reasoning. Sources of bias include culture and society.

Humans evolved to rely on cooperation and group cohesion for survival. These social instincts have helped us form communities, share knowledge, and build civilizations. However, they also introduce biases and pressures that distort our perception of reality.

Cultural Bias

Culture provides a framework for interpreting the world, but it also limits our perspective. Every society instills norms, values, and beliefs that shape how people understand information, influencing perceptions of morality, intelligence, and even physical reality. As a result, people often assume their worldview is the most rational or objective.

Cultural Differences in Thinking and Perception

There are many ways in which cultural differences influence cognitive styles, moral reasoning, and perceptions of reality.

One well-documented example is the contrast between holistic and analytical thinking. East Asian cultures, such as those in China, Japan, and Korea, emphasize holistic thinking, focusing on relationships and context, seeing the world as interconnected. In contrast, Western cultures, particularly in the United States and Europe, favor analytical thinking, which isolates individual objects and categorizes them.

A well-known experiment by psychologist Richard Nisbett illustrates this difference. Participants from the U.S. and Japan were shown an animated underwater scene. Americans focused on individual fish, describing them separately from their environment (“There was a big fish swimming fast”), while Japanese participants emphasized the relationships between elements, saying, “There was a pond with fish and plants.”

Personal identity is another area influenced by culture. Western cultures often emphasize individualism and self-expression, while East Asian and Indigenous cultures prioritize collectivism and social roles. When asked, “Who are you?” Americans typically define themselves by personal traits such as “I am creative” or “I like hiking.” In contrast, Japanese often describe themselves in terms of their roles and relationships, such as “I am a student at X University” or “I am the son of Y.”

Geography and Perception

Geography also plays a role in shaping perception.

The Mbuti Pygmies of the Congo, who live in dense forests, have a different understanding of space compared to people from open landscapes. British anthropologist Colin Turnbull once took a Pygmy named Kenge to an open plain. Kenge mistook distant buffalo for insects, as he lacked experience with long-distance depth perception.

Mbuti Pygmies of the Congo

Research at the University of Illinois found that people from the U.S. and East Asia perceived images differently and exhibited different eye movement patterns when viewing the same photographs. MRI scans showed that their brains processed sensory information differently, underscoring how cultural upbringing affects cognitive function at a neurological level.

Cultural Perceptions of Time: Linear, Cyclical, and Mystical

Different cultures perceive time distinctly, shaping their worldviews, decision-making, and societal structures. Western cultures, particularly those influenced by Christianity and industrialization, tend to view time as linear, progressing from past to present to future. This perspective emphasizes progress, deadlines, and long-term planning, treating time as a scarce resource to be managed efficiently.

Many Indigenous, East Asian, and Hindu-Buddhist cultures, on the other hand, see time as cyclical, marked by repeating patterns and seasons. In this view, history is not a straight path of progress but a series of recurring events, which influences attitudes toward change, patience, and resilience. Some cultures, particularly Indigenous and spiritual traditions, perceive time as fluid and interconnected, where events are linked by fate, intuition, or spiritual forces rather than a strict chronological order.

The Influence of Language on Thought

Language affects how we think, shaping perceptions of time, gender, and causality. English speakers, for example, typically describe events in the active voice, saying, “John broke the vase,” even if it was accidental. In contrast, Spanish and Japanese speakers often use the passive voice, saying, “The vase broke itself.” Studies show that English speakers are more likely to remember who was responsible for breaking an object than Spanish or Japanese speakers, indicating that language influences how blame is assigned.

Grammatical gender also shapes perception. In German, the word for “bridge” is feminine, leading speakers to describe bridges as “elegant” and “graceful.” In Spanish, where the word for bridge is masculine, speakers are more likely to describe bridges as “strong” and “sturdy.”

Different Moral Priorities

Moral psychologist Jonathan Haidt’s book The Righteous Mind illustrates how people from different cultural and political backgrounds prioritize different moral values. His research identifies six primary moral foundations: care, fairness, loyalty, authority, sanctity, and liberty. Political liberals tend to emphasize care and fairness, valuing the protection of vulnerable people and social justice. Conservatives, on the other hand, place more weight on loyalty, authority, and sanctity, seeing social cohesion and respect for tradition as essential.

For example, in one of Haidt’s studies, participants were asked whether it was wrong for a family to eat their pet dog after it was killed in an accident. Many conservatives found the idea morally repugnant, emphasizing sanctity and disgust, whereas liberals were more likely to argue that no harm was done, focusing on fairness and personal choice. This example highlights how moral judgments are shaped by underlying cultural and ideological perspectives.

Cultural Conflicts

Cultural norms often clash when societies, ethnic groups, or communities interact due to differing values, customs, and lifestyles. Key areas of conflict include:

• Individualism vs. Collectivism – In the U.S., children are encouraged to pursue personal goals, while in Japan, group success and conformity are emphasized.

• Direct vs. Indirect Communication – Americans may openly express disagreement, whilr in Japan, indirect phrasing and silence convey dissent.

• Different moral priorities: People often believe members of other cultures or political parties are more immoral when those members are instead prioritizing different moral principles.

• Time Perception – Germans prioritize strict punctuality in business meetings, while in Brazil arriving late is socially acceptable.
  

Social Pressure and Conformity: The Need to Belong

Beyond culture, social pressure plays a powerful role in shaping judgment. People often conform to group norms even when doing so contradicts their reasoning. Peer influence can override individual rationality, as the need for acceptance frequently leads people to adopt the beliefs and behaviors of those around them. Ingroup bias further distorts judgment, as people tend to favor those within their social or ideological groups while being skeptical of outsiders.

Psychologist Solomon Asch’s experiments on conformity demonstrated that people knowingly gave incorrect answers to simple questions just to align with the majority. Similarly, psychiatrist Gregory Berns’ brain scans revealed that dissenting from a group triggers fear and anxiety, showing how social pressure affects not just behavior but neurological responses. The bystander effect is another example of social pressure in action—people are less likely to help in emergencies when others are present, assuming someone else will take responsibility or fearing that standing out will make them look foolish.

Echo Chambers and the Illusion of Consensus

In today’s digital world, social influence extends beyond physical interactions. Online algorithms reinforce preexisting beliefs, isolating people from opposing perspectives. This leads to echo chambers, where biased exposure strengthens ideological views, and groupthink, where the desire for consensus suppresses dissent. Studies show that repeated exposure to the same opinion can alter perception, making falsehoods seem true. In this way, social influence shapes not only thought but also reality itself.

The Moral of the Story

Understanding how cultural norms, geography, language, and social pressures shape human thought is essential to developing strong critical thinking skills. To think critically, we must recognize that our perspectives are not purely objective but are shaped by the biases and cognitive patterns embedded within our societies, cultures, and social groups. By identifying these influences, we can begin to question assumptions that feel natural or self-evident but may be the result of social conditioning.

Objectivity requires more than just analyzing facts—it involves stepping outside our own cultural and social frameworks to consider alternative viewpoints. It means recognizing how collective thinking, group identity, and societal norms shape not only our personal beliefs but also the broader ideologies that drive public discourse, policies, and institutions.